He who has shown himself staunch, immovable, and firm in friendship ought to be considered almost divine!

He who has shown himself staunch, immovable, and firm in friendship ought to be considered to belong to that class of men which is exceedingly rare—aye, almost divine. M. Tullius Cicero. De Amictia. Laelius on friendship. Section 64.

Proper burial or at least funerary commemoration was particularly important to soldiers whose profession exposed them to a premature demise. The Roman value of pietas encompassed the desire of soldiers to honor their fallen comrades. The first burial clubs for soldiers were formed under Augustus, but, although the legions in permanent garrisons of the empire maintained a pool for funeral expenses, such as the ritual meal, burial, and commemoration, there are monuments referencing their erection by loyal friends and comrades.

Military tombstones are most commonly from the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. The pre-Marian army used soldiers for specific campaigning periods. Such soldiers would return to civilian life after serving in Rome's conflicts. The longer terms of military service instituted in the late 1st century BCE yielded more examples. On military tombstones the deceased is usually depicted in an act of victory with symbols of his rank or military honors he has received. The famous tombstone of Marcus Caelius, at Xanten, in Germany, depicts Caelius flanked by his freedmen holding a centurion's vitis (vine stick) and wearing a crown of oak, the corona civica, the second highest military decoration that was awarded for saving the life of a fellow Roman citizen in battle. Cavalrymen are often shown riding over the body of a downtrodden foe, an image interpreted as a symbolic victory over death. The image below is a beautiful example of a tombstone of a Germanic cavalryman of the 1st century CE, also from Xanten.

Image: Tombstone of Reburrus, son of Friatto, of German descent, who served as a horseman of the Ala Frontoniana, a Roman auxiliary unit. In the 1st century CE the Ala Frontoniana was stationed first in Bonn, then in the area of Moers-Asberg. Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor Ad Meskens.